Linguistics Essays William Labov

Linguistics Essays William Labov William Labov’s narrative analysis differs from some of the earlier approaches in that his method focuses on oral narrative instead of written text. William Labov’s narrative analysis differs from some of the earlier approaches in that his method focuses on oral narrative instead of written text. Earlier linguists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure, believed in a structural approach. This meant that language had to be approached as a fixed, clearly defined set of symbols, which furthermore had to be studied in isolation. However, later linguists, among them Uriel Weinrich, Labov’s mentor, believed that the structural approach failed to assist us in understanding â€Å"the transition of a language from state to state† (Labov 1972:xv). Labov’s focus has been to study language as it is spoken, as a fluid and constantly changing dynamic. Most of Labov’s model of narrative analysis is based on his belief that â€Å"one cannot understand the development of a language change apart from the social life of the community in which it occurs† (1972:3). He feels strongly that observing and recording sound changes is not enough to understand the process of change—that one has to view that change within the context of the community in which it is being made, as it is being made. Using this theory, he carefully chose communities where he felt he could do this most effectively. He conducted the first of several in-depth studies in Martha’s Vineyard, a small, closed island community located in Dukes County, Massachusetts. Labov saw Martha’s Vineyard as an ideal study site primarily because it was very self-contained. In addition, it was physically isolated, located three miles from the mainland. For his next series of studies, Labov selected parts of New York City. One particular area he focused on in the New York City study focused on Black English as it was used in certain parts of the city, specifically Harlem. Although Harlem did not have geographical distance from New York the way Martha’s Vineyard did from Massachusetts, racial and socioeconomic boundaries made it an isolated community in its own way. The main points of Labov’s model were first published in 1972 in an essay entitled â€Å"The Transformation of Experience in Narrative Syntax.† In this essay Labov introduces and explains what he sees as the six main parts of a narrative. He discusses each part as a tool which we can use to analyze narrative patterns, to help recognize recurring themes and ideas. The six main parts of Labov’s model are: abstract; orientation; complicating action; evaluation; resolution; and coda. It is not necessary that all six of these be present in every narrative; for example, some narratives will not have an abstract, while others may not have a coda. Additionally, these components need not appear in a specific order, and each may be present in a variety of ways—these factors are also considered in the final analysis. Labov uses the term â€Å"abstract† to refer to the introductory part of the narrative. This may be, literally, an â€Å"abstract,† or a brief summary of the events; or it may be simply a line or two that will spark the reader’s interest. The role of the abstract is to attract the listener’s interest, and to get the listener to want to hear the rest of the story. The next stage is called â€Å"orientation.† During this phase the speaker gives the listener information about the setting of the story. For example, the speaker will introduce and describe the people or characters who will interact in the story, as well the setting (the place the action occurs) and the time frame. For the story to be valid and understandable to the reader, it is essential that he or she be informed of the time and place in which the narrative unfolds. Following orientation is the â€Å"complicating action.† This refers to the actual events of the narrative, the occurrences that move it ahead. Complicating actions may be physical actions. They may be also be statements spoken aloud, or they may be thought acts â€Å"Evaluation† refers to the point, or reason, the narrative is being told, and it can be done in a number of ways. â€Å"Evaluations† may be specifically and clearly stated, or they may be implied. â€Å"Internal† evaluations are those revealed while the story is taking place, while â€Å"external† evaluations take place outside the immediate action of the story (for example, after the story is told). Another evaluation technique is the â€Å"embedded evaluation.† This can be an explanation offered by one of the people in the story, or by the storyteller directly. In addition, it may also be an event in the story. Following this is what Labov calls the â€Å"result† or â€Å"resolution†: this, basically, is the conclusion. At this point the narrator indicates that the story has come to a close, that a final action has occurred. Finally, there may be a â€Å"coda.† By â€Å"coda† Labov means that the narrator points out the relevance of the story by connecting it with every-day life, or with other events or actions that fall outside the story frame. The coda does not always have to be present. It may also be present without being explicitly stated. One of the issues to be discussed concerning Labov’s model for narrative analysis is the method of data collection, since â€Å"the means used to gather the data interfere with the data to be gathered† (Labov 1972:43). The interview itself may be considered â€Å"public speech.† However, even within this realm, there are other conditions to be considered. For example, does the relationship of the interviewer to the interviewee affect the latter’s speech patterns? Does the use of a recording device affect the interviewee’s choice of words, perhaps make word selection more formal than it ordinarily would be? One way of monitoring this is to compare the subject’s speech patterns during the course of the interview with his or her speech patterns outside the interview setting. For example, the interviewer could also observe the subject while he or she is relaxed with peers or family members in a less formal setting. Labov’s model has strongly influenced language studies since its introduction in 1972, and it continues to be influential in additional settings. With the widespread growth of the internet, we now have a new, informal sort of communication.   Linguist Michael Toolan suggests that Labov’s model is a useful tool in the analysis of internet writing. Internet writing is often less formal than academic or other types of writing, but more structured than spoken language. Thus, Labov’s model remains effective today. As language itself continues to grow and change, it is quite probable that Labov’s model will grow to accommodate that change, and to continue to be a useful tool in years to come. REFERENCES Labov, William (1972) Socioloinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Toolan, Michael (1988) Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction London: Routledge.

Contemporary society Essay

Identify the principal agents who expose white collar crime in contemporary society. What factors motivate people to expose such crime, and what factors inhibit them from doing so? What specific policy measures can be adopted to encourage exposure of white collar crime? The principle agents who expose white collar crimes in contemporary society are informers, whistleblowers and investigative reporters. Informers would consist of the people like politicians who usually give information to receive a lesser sentence or the like for their own involvement. This is very popular here in IL where the politicians are tried and convicted and then become witnesses testifying against one of their fellow conspirators. These informants are motivated by their sense of self-preservation. However, they can be reluctant to tell as there may be a fear of retaliation to them or to their families. Also, there are whistleblowers who, in my opinion, are usually driven by moral and ethical values. These brave people are the ones who brought companies, like Enron, to the forefront. They are your everyday employees who see something wrong, and bring it to the attention of those who can enforce the laws that are in place. Moreover, they could be reluctant to tell anything due to fear of being blacklisted, loss of employment, or being ostracized among other negative reactions. Sometimes the negative social and financial repercussions outweigh the benefits of doing what is morally right. Last, there are investigative reporters. These professional bring issue to the forefront, when it appears that they are being overlooked by society. A good example of this is a news story that showed, at different construction sites, workers asleep on the job, wasting tax payer money. Another story involved politicians being investigated for giving contracts to friends and family. Investigative reporting is motivated by professionals who want to bring to the forefront the crimes of companies and government, but I believe that it is also driven by ratings. Some things can be shown because it won’t affect sponsorship, but some things are shelved for fear of losing corporate sponsorship. In order to encourage exposing white collar crimes, policies preventing the accusing from retaliating should be put into place. Also, some form of compensation should be met to those who risk their livelihood to do what is right. Not an excessive compensation, but compensation nonetheless. However, I do not believe anything will ever completely help. Companies will still be able to  blacklist and financially and socially ruin a whistleblower. It cannot be prevented. Also, they can still pull their money out of local stations. The companies have a lot power, and they are hard to fight. 6. How can corporations ensure that their employees behave ethically? Corporations can ensure that their employees behave ethically, by showing a good example of ethical behavior at the top. It begins with the CEO and senior management. If they display ethical behavior, the employees will follow suit. The work environment would become a do as I do vs. do as I say environment. Also, a clear and sound structured work environment is necessary. Internal controls need to be in place to create a check and balance system. This system would leave less room for unethical behavior. Last, continuous training on what is expected from the company and company policies would also be effective. A reminder on what is expected and accepted (or not accepted) is a good way to keep employees in line with company objectives.

Poverty: Most Serious Problem in the Whole World

I choose poverty as my topic for my essay because poverty has been considered as the most serious problem not only In the United State, but also In the whole world. It has been playing an important role In developing the entire society. There are three different theories In analyzing how society Influences people, and how people Influence society, which are functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic Interaction.There are five social Institutions In functionalist perspective: family, government, economy, religion, and education. View poverty from functionalism perspective, It stops the development of the whole society. The effects of poverty to society Is a very long list. Illness, crime, and hunger are major effects of poverty on society as a whole. Some of these effects can also be considered as a cause for poverty. Poverty also can lead to poor education for those children who are effected by poverty. It also will lead o revolution from the lower class people, who are suffering p overty, against the government.Sometimes it will also cause terrorism. But on the other hand, poverty can also create some jobs opportunities. Manifest function, consequences which are intended and recognized by the participants in a system, of poverty is that it gets the â€Å"dirty work† done. Latent function, consequences that are neither intended nor recognized, of poverty is that it separates people from different classes. Latent dysfunction of the poverty is that it will only enlarge the gap between the rich and he poor. Conflict theory is more focused on controlling the scarce resources..Apply conflict theory to poverty, the poor will try to get out of their situation while the rich will do their best to protect the scarce resource. In this case, the scarce resource is money, The struggling groups of poverty are the â€Å"have onto† , and these â€Å"haves†, rich people, gain a lot more power in this case. Rich people have more power In an economic way, m oney. They want to keep their benefits, and they can give their children some advantages in this way at the same time. If the poor wins more power In this struggle, one of the biggest changes In would be wages.In this society, more money produces more power, more power produces more money. The riches will get richer, the poor get poorer. The third theory Is symbolic Interaction. It relies on the symbolic meanings that people develop and rely upon In the process of social Interaction. In poverty, people who are labeled poor are always stigmatize as lazy, lack of motivation and education, or sometimes even criminal while wealthy people re always considered capable, hard working, well-educated and motivated.It separates people from different classes communicating with each other, that way It enlarges the disparity between the rich and the poor. In a conclusion, poverty Is one of the most rigorous issues right now In our society. It applies to these three different theories in different ways. The theory that I agree with the most is the people are really trying their best to narrow the gap between the rich and poor, but it really takes some sufferance to overcome those difficulties.

Analysis Of The Movie Fall Of The House Of Usher By...

The estate so deserted, and no one to give it the necessary attention; it is the house of ushers! Written by Edgar Allan Poe is the story of â€Å"fall of the House of Usher†. This story contains a certain type of people whose family line is very limited and is reason to why the estate is beyond destroyed. The house of ushers is a place where no human being should be able to see; For It is a horrific site. The narrator is describing the house as an unearthly place to be and he is trying to bring a gothic or dark feeling into the story. The house looks to be as if no one has been living there for a long while. The trees where broken and decomposed beyond belief. The house of ushers looked beyond depressing even for the soul. The estate and the house looked terrible and disgusting. The narrator describes the horrific scene of the house by saying â€Å"upon the bleak walls -- upon the vacant eye-like windows -- upon a few rank sedges -- and upon a few white trunks of decayed tre es -- with an utter depression of soul which I can compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of the reveller upon opium.† (Poe 1) By the narrator saying the entire previous quote he is describing how bad the house is appeared to be. The appearance of the estate and the house are not relevant enough to what is about to be told. When Roderick Usher tells the narrator â€Å"I feel that the period will sooner or later arrive when I must abandon life and reason together, in some struggle withShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Poe s The Fall Of The House Of Usher 3197 Words   |  13 PagesStory Final Paper December 10, 2014 Poe’s â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† Edgar Allan Poe is an American poet from the early 1800s who has been regarded in many literary handbooks as â€Å"the architect of the modern short story† (Poetry Foundation). Since his death in 1849, Poe has become world renowned for his critical theories as well as his many haunting poems and short stories. But Poe s work hasn’t always been as popular as it is today. In 1827, Poe published his first collection of poetry, Tamerlane